Beyond the Grid: Appliance Poverty and Unequal Energy Services in Rural Nigeria

Abstract

This paper presents new evidence on the limits of energy access in rural Nigeria by examining the persistence of appliance poverty among households connected to the grid. Using the 2021 PeopleSuN dataset, a geospatially stratified survey of 3,599 households across three geopolitical zones, we document that electrification alone has not translated into energy service equity. Despite formal connections to the national grid, many families lack essential appliances for a decent living, such as refrigeration, lighting, and digital connectivity.

We construct a multidimensional Appliance Poverty Index, complemented by a binary threshold of appliance deprivation, and estimate regression models linking ownership gaps to household income, electricity reliability, education, housing quality, and gender. The results consistently show that low-income households, those experiencing unreliable grid supply, and those with lower housing quality face the highest risk of appliance poverty. Interestingly, while female-headed households own fewer appliances in total, they are less likely to be appliance-poor in essential services, suggesting differentiated energy choices. Generator ownership plays a limited role in alleviating deprivation, emphasising that stopgap solutions do not close the service gap. These findings reveal a post-grid poverty trap, where infrastructure exists but fails to unlock the full benefits of energy access. The study contributes to the literature on energy inequality by shifting the focus from mere electrification to energy services, highlighting the need for service-based energy planning, appliance financing, and reliability improvements as critical demand-side interventions.