Path of Science: International Electronic Scientific Journal

Traditional medicine remains the primary source of healthcare for an estimated 80% of Nigerians, yet unresolved issues of standardisation, safety, and clinical efficacy hinder its integration into the formal healthcare sector. This perspective synthesises current evidence and global best practices to outline a translational roadmap for incorporating validated traditional remedies into Nigeria's primary care system. We review methodological adaptations – ranging from pragmatic clinical trials to N-of-1 designs – that accommodate the multi-component nature of herbal formulations, and we highlight the regulatory reforms and practitioner-training programmes now being piloted by NAFDAC and allied institutions. Particular attention is given to infectious diseases: pharmacological and preclinical data for six widely used antimalarial and antibacterial plants are summarised, underscoring their relevance to drug-resistant malaria and typhoid. Digital innovations, including mobile health apps, knowledge repositories, and AI-driven phytochemical screening, are presented as catalysts for data capture, quality control, and accelerated drug discovery. By framing traditional medicine as a complementary resource rather than an alternative, the article argues that evidence-based integration can expand access, improve care quality, and strengthen system resilience – especially in underserved communities – while preserving indigenous knowledge and stimulating local biopharmaceutical innovation.

1. Fokunang, C., Ndikum, V., Tabi, O., Jiofack, R., Ngameni, B., Guedje, N., Tembe-Fokunang, E., Tomkins, P., Barkwan, S., Kechia, F., Asongalem, E., Ngoupayou, J., Torimiro, N., Gonsu, K., Sielinou, V., Ngadjui, B., Angwafor, I., Nkongmeneck, A., Abena, O., … Lohoue, J. (2011). Traditional Medicine: Past, present and future research and development prospects and integration in the National Health System of Cameroon. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 8(3). doi: 10.4314/ajtcam.v8i3.65276

2. Abubakar, I., Dalglish, S. L., Angell, B., Sanuade, O., Abimbola, S., Adamu, A. L., Adetifa, I. M. O., Colbourn, T., Ogunlesi, A. O., Onwujekwe, O., Owoaje, E. T., Okeke, I. N., Adeyemo, A., Aliyu, G., Aliyu, M. H., Aliyu, S. H., Ameh, E. A., Archibong, B., Ezeh, A., … Zanna, F. H. (2022). The Lancet Nigeria Commission: investing in health and the future of the nation. The Lancet, 399(10330), 1155–1200. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(21)02488-0

3. Wang, H., Chen, Y., Wang, L., Liu, Q., Yang, S., & Wang, C. (2023). Advancing herbal medicine: enhancing product quality and safety through robust quality control practices. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 14. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1265178

4. Msoka, E. F., Dwarampudi, S., Billings, R., Stone, R. J., Mwageni, R. E., Beavers, A., Mmbaga, B. T., & Gutnik, L. (2025). The role of traditional healers along the cancer care continuum in Sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review. Archives of Public Health, 83(1). doi: 10.1186/s13690-025-01521-7

5. Byram, J. N., Van Nuland, S. E., Harrell, K. M., Mussell, J. C., & Cornwall, J. (2023). Educator perspectives on non‐technical, discipline‐independent skill acquisition: An international, qualitative study. Anatomical Sciences Education, 16(6), 1102–1117. doi: 10.1002/ase.2302

6. Li, S., Odedina, S., Agwai, I., Ojengbede, O., Huo, D., & Olopade, O. I. (2020). Traditional medicine usage among adult women in Ibadan, Nigeria: a cross-sectional study. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 20(1). doi: 10.1186/s12906-020-02881-z

7. Chen, S.-L., Yu, H., Luo, H.-M., Wu, Q., Li, C.-F., & Steinmetz, A. (2016). Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants: problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese Medicine, 11(1). doi: 10.1186/s13020-016-0108-7

8. Koonrungsesomboon, N., Sakuludomkan, C., Na Takuathung, M., Klinjan, P., Sawong, S., & Perera, P. K. (2024). Study design of herbal medicine clinical trials: a descriptive analysis of published studies investigating the effects of herbal medicinal products on human participants. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 24(1). doi: 10.1186/s12906-024-04697-7

9. Pal, S. K., & Lawal, I. U. (2023). Current Status and Future of Traditional, Complementary and Integrative Medicine in Nigeria. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 7(12), 5403-5409. doi: 10.26538/tjnpr/v7i12.5

10. Ampomah, I. G., Devine, S., Ampomah, G. A., & Emeto, T. I. (2025). Exploring the contribution of integrated healthcare practices to malaria control in Ghana: perspectives of medical herbalists. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 25(1). doi: 10.1186/s12906-025-04746-9

11. Babagana, U. I., & Kemboi, G. (n.d.). Digital Preservation of Indigenous Knowledge in Ramat Library (University of Maiduguri, Nigeria). IPRES 2024 Papers - International Conference on Digital Preservation. doi: 10.21428/5676bf2d.783b0f9e

12. Ilomuanya, M., & Adegun, A. (2023). Translational Herbal Medicines Availability: A Necessity to Ensure Medicine Security in Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Pharmacy, 57(1), 512–524. doi: 10.51412/psnnjp.2023.12

13. Chaachouay, N., & Zidane, L. (2024). Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Source for Drug Discovery and Development. Drugs and Drug Candidates, 3(1), 184–207. doi: 10.3390/ddc3010011

14. Zakerabasali, S., Ayyoubzadeh, S. M., Baniasadi, T., Yazdani, A., & Abhari, S. (2021). Mobile Health Technology and Healthcare Providers: Systemic Barriers to Adoption. Healthcare Informatics Research, 27(4), 267–278. doi: 10.4258/hir.2021.27.4.267

15. Arize, I., & Onwujekwe, O. (2017). Acceptability and willingness to pay for telemedicine services in Enugu state, southeast Nigeria. DIGITAL HEALTH, 3. doi: 10.1177/2055207617715524

16. Owoyemi, A., Owoyemi, J., Osiyemi, A., & Boyd, A. (2020). Artificial Intelligence for Healthcare in Africa. Frontiers in Digital Health, 2. doi: 10.3389/fdgth.2020.00006

17. Ugwu Chika, E., Ujunwa Precious, BPharm, D., King-David, BPharm, A., Ezenri, BPharm, G., Okechukwu, BPharm, N. T., Chidozie, C., & Madubugwu, R. (2024). Digital Healthcare Tools in Nigeria: Strengthening Public Health and Pandemic Preparedness - Insights from the COVID-19 Crisis. Telehealth and Medicine Today, 9(1). doi: 10.30953/thmt.v9.445

18. Isiko, I., Nyegenye, S., Bett, D. K., Asingwire, J. M., Okoro, L. N., Emeribe, N. A., Koech, C. C., Ahgu, O., Bulus, N. G., Taremwa, K., & Mwesigwa, A. (2024). Factors associated with the risk of malaria among children: analysis of 2021 Nigeria Malaria Indicator Survey. Malaria Journal, 23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12936-024-04939-6

19. Evbuomwan, I. O., Stephen Adeyemi, O., & Oluba, O. M. (2023). Indigenous medicinal plants used in folk medicine for malaria treatment in Kwara State, Nigeria: an ethnobotanical study. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12906-023-04131-4

20. Haidara, M., Haddad, M., Denou, A., Marti, G., Bourgeade-Delmas, S., Sanogo, R., Bourdy, G., & Aubouy, A. (2018). In vivo validation of anti-malarial activity of crude extracts of Terminalia macroptera, a Malian medicinal plant. Malaria Journal, 17(1). doi: 10.1186/s12936-018-2223-7

21. Oseghale, I. D., Lawal, O. P., Ubebe, D. O., Orjiewulu, V. C., Igunma, A. A., Odey, O. P., Ajibola, D. T., Chima, D. I., Tuador, N. K., & Ani, C. P. (2024). Ethnomedicinal and Phytopharmacological Aspects of Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf) Utilised as a Traditional Medicinal Herb. Asian Journal of Research in Biochemistry, 14(6), 41–57. doi: 10.9734/ajrb/2024/v14i6326

22. Akwa, T. E., & Nguimbous, S. P. (2021). Common plants used in the treatment of typhoid fever, their active components and toxicity related issues: A review. Natural Resources for Human Health, 1(1), 36–42. doi: 10.53365/nrfhh/141241

23. Oyedeji-Amusa, M., Cuboia, N., & Olofinsan, K. (2024). Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Typhoid Fever in Nigeria: A Systematic Review. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 47, 100930. doi: 10.1016/j.hermed.2024.100930

24. Tauchen, J., Frankova, A., Manourova, A., Valterova, I., Lojka, B., & Leuner, O. (2023). Garcinia kola: a critical review on chemistry and pharmacology of an important West African medicinal plant. Phytochemistry Reviews, 22(5), 1305–1351. doi: 10.1007/s11101-023-09869-w

25. Malapela, R. G., Thupayagale‐Tshweneagae, G., & Baratedi, W. M. (2022). Use of home remedies for the treatment and prevention of coronavirus disease: An integrative review. Health Science Reports, 6(1). doi: 10.1002/hsr2.900

26. Elechi, K. W., John, K. A., Ezigbo, U. G., Olumeko, I., Okonkwo, M., Adeoye, A., Umoru, D. O., Ezinwanne, T. H., Onyekwelu, P. O., & Chikezie, N. C. (2025). Health outcomes teams and the advancement of herbal medicine research in Nigeria: A COVID-19 case study. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 14(2), 351–357. doi: 10.22271/phyto.2025.v14.i2e.15307

27. Bright, B., Babalola, C. P., Sam-Agudu, N. A., Onyeaghala, A. A., Olatunji, A., Aduh, U., Sobande, P. O., Crowell, T. A., Tebeje, Y. K., Phillip, S., Ndembi, N., & Folayan, M. O. (2021). COVID-19 preparedness: capacity to manufacture vaccines, therapeutics and diagnostics in sub-Saharan Africa. Globalisation and Health, 17(1). doi: 10.1186/s12992-021-00668-6

28. Lippincott. (2025). Main page. Retrieved from https://lww.com/pages/default.aspx

29. Nureye, D., Sano, M., Fekadu, M., Duguma, T., & Tekalign, E. (2021). Antiplasmodial Activity of the Crude Extract and Solvent Fractions of Stem Barks of Gardenia ternifolia in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2021, 1–16. doi: 10.1155/2021/9625169

30. Plirat, W., Chaniad, P., Phuwajaroanpong, A., Septama, A. W., & Punsawad, C. (2022). Phytochemical, Antimalarial, and Acute Oral Toxicity Properties of Selected Crude Extracts of Prabchompoothaweep Remedy in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 7(12), 395. doi: 10.3390/tropicalmed7120395

31. Lawal, O. P., Ahmed, N. K., Ilesanmi, T. A., Anthony, G. I., Nwosu, S. N., Ogungbemiro, F. O., Olaide, Z., Adeniyi, M. M., Okoye, U. L., Olufunmilayo, A. M., Christopher, A. A., & Oseghale, I. D. (2024). The Impact of Antimicrobial Resistance on Cancer Treatment: A Systematic Review of Current Evidence and Future Directions. Asian Journal of Research in Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 13(4), 9–27. doi: 10.9734/ajrimps/2024/v13i4270

32. Yeung, A. W. K., Torkamani, A., Butte, A. J., Glicksberg, B. S., Schuller, B., Rodriguez, B., Ting, D. S. W., Bates, D., Schaden, E., Peng, H., Willschke, H., van der Laak, J., Car, J., Rahimi, K., Celi, L. A., Banach, M., Kletecka-Pulker, M., Kimberger, O., Eils, R., … Atanasov, A. G. (2023). The promise of digital healthcare technologies. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1196596