Information Security Challenges in the Absence of ICT in Protecting Personal and Organisational Data in Nairobi County, Kenya

Andrew Gitau Kimani, Casper Masiga

Abstract

There have been several cases of lost documents and misplaced or inaccurate information belonging to individuals or organisations reported in recent times at global, national and regional levels. Nairobi county is one of the regions on the spot as many people travelling or working in the city have reported lost identification documents such as certificates and licenses, whether through criminality or negligence. Furthermore, most businesses and organisations dealing with huge volumes of data need help to protect and provide accurate information. Many still need help with the pre-digital data management systems, thus risking the loss of both personal and organisational data. This paper, therefore, sought to examine the information security challenges due to the inadequate application of ICT in managing personal and corporate data and their implications on individuals and organisations in Nairobi County. The target population included employees from Kenya Revenue Authority and Kenya Data Networks in Nairobi headquarters offices, police officers deployed at NPS offices headquarters and members of the public. The selected target groups were known to deal with enormous data for both personnel and businesses, and the police officers were part of this study because of their mandate to help in tracking lost personal and business documents. Lastly, the researcher engaged members of the public to share their experiences of losing business and personal records. The study employed purposive and simple random sampling techniques to select the required sample of 110 participants drawn from the four groups. A structured questionnaire was administered to the sampled police officers, employees of Kenya Data Network and Kenya Revenue Authority and members of the public. The researchers interviewed key informants from the three organisations, NPS, KRA and KDA, to complement the data collected using the questionnaires. The findings established that challenges were associated with the need for more ICT in managing personal information and organisational data.

The paper revealed that the need for an integrated system is a challenge to tracking missing identities or verifying the validity of provided information, thus compromising the productivity and security of businesses and institutions. Results from this study provide a solution to tracking any missing documents and correcting inaccurate personal data by adopting an integrated ICT system.




Keywords


Information security challenges; personal data; information technology

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References


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Ando, R., Shima, S., & Takemura, T. (2016). Analysis of Privacy and Security Affecting the Intention of Use in Personal Data Collection in an IoT Environment. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E99.D(8), 1974–1981. doi: 10.1587/transinf.2015ini0002

Bormann, E. G. (1985). Symbolic Convergence Theory: A Communication Formulation. Journal of Communication, 35(4), 128–138. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1985.tb02977.x

Bradley, G. (1979). Computerisation and some Psychosocial Factors in the Work Environment. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nioshtic-2/00086192.html

Bradley, G. (2010). The Convergence Theory on ICT, Society and Human Beings – towards the Good ICT society. TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society, 8(2), 183–192. doi: 10.31269/triplec.v8i2.170

D'Agostino, R., & Delaney, R. (2015). The challenges of integrating new technology into an organisation. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=mathcompcapstones

Gretzel, U., Fesenmaier, D. R., Formica, S., & O’Leary, J. T. (2006). Searching for the Future: Challenges Faced by Destination Marketing Organizations. Journal of Travel Research, 45(2), 116–126. doi: 10.1177/0047287506291598

Gupta, B., Dasgupta, S., & Gupta, A. (2008). Adoption of ICT in a government organization in a developing country: An empirical study. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 17(2), 140–154. doi: 10.1016/j.jsis.2007.12.004

Gupta, S. (2018). Organisational barriers to digital transformation. Retrieved from https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1218220/FULLTEXT01.pdf

Guseva, O. Yu., Kazarova, I. O., Dumanska, I. Y., Gorodetskyy, M. A., Melnichuk, L. V., & Saienko, V. H. (2022). Personal Data Protection Policy Impact on the Company Development. Wseas transactions on environment and development, 18, 232–246. doi: 10.37394/232015.2022.18.25

Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2009). Missing persons. A handbook for parliamentarians. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_1117.pdf

Jamin, J., Md Arifin, N. A., Mokhtar, S. A., Nik Rosli, N. N. I., & Mohd Shukry, A. I. (2019). Privacy concern of personal information in the ict usage, internet and social media perspective. Malaysian E Commerce Journal, 3(2), 15–17. doi: 10.26480/mecj.02.2019.15.17

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Kim, S.-B., & Kim, D. (2020). ICT Implementation and Its Effect on Public Organizations: The Case of Digital Customs and Risk Management in Korea. Sustainability, 12(8), 3421. doi: 10.3390/su12083421

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Koops, B. J., & Leenes, R. (2014). Privacy regulation cannot be hardcoded. A critical comment on the ‘privacy by design’provision in data-protection law. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 28(2), 159–171.

Limaj, E., & Bilali, E. (2018). Examining Digital Technology Constraints on Higher Education in Developing Countries Through the Lens of the Capability Approach. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326081099_Examining_Digital_Technology_Constraints_on_Higher_Education_in_Developing_Countries_Through_the_Lens_of_the_Capability_Approach

Lubis, M., Kartiwi, M., & Zulhuda, S. (2017). Privacy and Personal Data Protection in Electronic Voting: Factors and Measures. TELKOMNIKA, 15(1), 512. doi: 10.12928/telkomnika.v15i1.3804

Mariani, M. M., Ek Styven, M., & Teulon, F. (2021). Explaining the intention to use digital personal data stores: An empirical study. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 166, 120657. doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120657

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Miller, R. L. (2015). Rogers' innovation diffusion theory (1962, 1995). In information seeking behavior and technology adoption (pp. 261–274). doi: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8156-9.ch016

Muriithi, P., Horner, D., & Pemberton, L. (2016). Factors contributing to adoption and use of information and communication technologies within research collaborations in Kenya. Information Technology for Development, 22(sup1), 84–100. doi: 10.1080/02681102.2015.1121856

Niebla Zatarain, J. M. (2019). Smart cities and personal data: balancing innovation, technology and the law. Revista Direito, Estado e Sociedade, 54. doi: 10.17808/des.54.1324

Nyambura, M. (2015). Influence of adoption of information and communication technology on data management processes in nongovernmental organisations in Nakuru county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/90409

Ogbomo, E. F. (2011). Issues and challenges in the use of information communication technology (icts) in education. Journal of information and knowledge management, 2(1), 1–19.

Otieno, A. P. (2015). Factors Influencing Ict Adoption And Usage By Small And Medium Sized Enterprises: The Case Of Nairobi Based Smes (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11732/1365/FACTORS%20INFLUENCING%20ICT%20ADOPTION%20AND%20USAGE%20BY%20SMALL%20AND%20MEDIUM%20SIZED%20ENTERPRISES.pdf?sequence=4

Pontell, H. N. (2009). Identity theft: Bounded rationality, research, and policy. Criminology & Public Policy, 8(2), 263–270. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00564.x

Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (3th ed.). London: The Free Press.

Roy, N. C., & Viswanathan, T. (2019). Disruptive Technologies and its Effect on the Workforce in Banks: A Framework of Assessment for Mitigation. The Empirical Economic Letters, 18.

Sahin, I. (2006). Detailed review of Rogers' diffusion of innovations theory and educational technology-related studies based on Rogers' theory. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 5(2), 14–23.

Schaffhauser, D. (2017). Biggest barriers to digital learning: lack of time, lack of devices. Retrieved from https://thejournal.com/articles/2017/09/18/biggest-barriers-to-digital-learning.aspx

Scholkmann, A. B. (2021). Resistance to (Digital) Change. Digital Transformation of Learning Organizations, 219–236. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-55878-9_13

Serah, N. N. (2014). Challenges Facing Effective Information And Communications Technology (Ict) Implementation In Selected Public Secondary Schools In Nakuru North District Nakuru County (Masters thesis). Retrieved from https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/10162/Challenges%20facing%20effective...pdf.pdf;sequence=1

Solis, B. (2017, December). The Digital Change Agent’s Manifesto. Retrieved from https://www.peterfisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Altimeter-Digital-Change-Agents-Manifesto.pdf

Spiekermann, S., Acquisti, A., Böhme, R., & Hui, K.-L. (2015). The challenges of personal data markets and privacy. Electronic Markets, 25(2), 161–167. doi: 10.1007/s12525-015-0191-0

Stüber, J. (2018). Barriers of digital technologies in Higher Education. A teachers’ perspective from a Swedish University (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1201871/FULLTEXT01.pdf

Surry, D. (1997). Diffusion theory and instructional technology. Retrieved from https://myweb.fsu.edu/ajeong/eme5457/readings/Surry1997_DiffusionTheoryInstrTech.pdf

Wolcott, P., Kamal, M., & Qureshi, S. (2008). Meeting the challenges of ICT adoption by micro‐enterprises. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 21(6), 616–632. doi: 10.1108/17410390810911212

1. Agbo, I. S. (2015). Factors Influencing the Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Teaching and Learning Computer Studies in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State-Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(7), 71–86.

2. Ando, R., Shima, S., & Takemura, T. (2016). Analysis of Privacy and Security Affecting the Intention of Use in Personal Data Collection in an IoT Environment. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E99.D(8), 1974–1981. doi: 10.1587/transinf.2015ini0002

3. Bormann, E. G. (1985). Symbolic Convergence Theory: A Communication Formulation. Journal of Communication, 35(4), 128–138. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1985.tb02977.x

4. Bradley, G. (1979). Computerisation and some Psychosocial Factors in the Work Environment. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nioshtic-2/00086192.html

5. Bradley, G. (2010). The Convergence Theory on ICT, Society and Human Beings – towards the Good ICT society. TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society, 8(2), 183–192. doi: 10.31269/triplec.v8i2.170

6. D'Agostino, R., & Delaney, R. (2015). The challenges of integrating new technology into an organisation. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=mathcompcapstones

7. Gretzel, U., Fesenmaier, D. R., Formica, S., & O’Leary, J. T. (2006). Searching for the Future: Challenges Faced by Destination Marketing Organizations. Journal of Travel Research, 45(2), 116–126. doi: 10.1177/0047287506291598

8. Gupta, B., Dasgupta, S., & Gupta, A. (2008). Adoption of ICT in a government organization in a developing country: An empirical study. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 17(2), 140–154. doi: 10.1016/j.jsis.2007.12.004

9. Gupta, S. (2018). Organisational barriers to digital transformation. Retrieved from https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1218220/FULLTEXT01.pdf

10. Guseva, O. Yu., Kazarova, I. O., Dumanska, I. Y., Gorodetskyy, M. A., Melnichuk, L. V., & Saienko, V. H. (2022). Personal Data Protection Policy Impact on the Company Development. Wseas transactions on environment and development, 18, 232–246. doi: 10.37394/232015.2022.18.25

11. Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2009). Missing persons. A handbook for parliamentarians. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_1117.pdf

12. Jamin, J., Md Arifin, N. A., Mokhtar, S. A., Nik Rosli, N. N. I., & Mohd Shukry, A. I. (2019). Privacy concern of personal information in the ict usage, internet and social media perspective. Malaysian E Commerce Journal, 3(2), 15–17. doi: 10.26480/mecj.02.2019.15.17

13. Kiema, J. (2017). Effects of ICT Support Services on Revenue Collection by Kenya Revenue Authority (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/103074/Kiema_Effects%20Of%20ICT%20Support%20Services%20On%20Revenue%20Collection%20By%20Kenya%20Revenue%20Authority.pdf?sequence=1

14. Kim, S.-B., & Kim, D. (2020). ICT Implementation and Its Effect on Public Organizations: The Case of Digital Customs and Risk Management in Korea. Sustainability, 12(8), 3421. doi: 10.3390/su12083421

15. Kimani, A. G. (2016). Efficacy of Information Technology in Protecting Personal and Business Data in Nairobi County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/14964/EFFICACY%20OF%20INFORMATION%20TECHNOLOGY%20IN%20PROTECTING.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=2

16. Koops, B. J., & Leenes, R. (2014). Privacy regulation cannot be hardcoded. A critical comment on the ‘privacy by design’provision in data-protection law. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 28(2), 159–171.

17. Limaj, E., & Bilali, E. (2018). Examining Digital Technology Constraints on Higher Education in Developing Countries Through the Lens of the Capability Approach. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326081099_Examining_Digital_Technology_Constraints_on_Higher_Education_in_Developing_Countries_Through_the_Lens_of_the_Capability_Approach

18. Lubis, M., Kartiwi, M., & Zulhuda, S. (2017). Privacy and Personal Data Protection in Electronic Voting: Factors and Measures. TELKOMNIKA, 15(1), 512. doi: 10.12928/telkomnika.v15i1.3804

19. Mariani, M. M., Ek Styven, M., & Teulon, F. (2021). Explaining the intention to use digital personal data stores: An empirical study. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 166, 120657. doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120657

20. McGowan, K., Homer, V., & Dolan, J. (2018, September). Personal data empowerment: restoring power to the people in a digital age. Retrieved from https://pathwayscommission.bsg.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2018-11/personal_data_empowerment.pdf

21. Miller, R. L. (2015). Rogers' innovation diffusion theory (1962, 1995). In information seeking behavior and technology adoption (pp. 261–274). doi: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8156-9.ch016

22. Muriithi, P., Horner, D., & Pemberton, L. (2016). Factors contributing to adoption and use of information and communication technologies within research collaborations in Kenya. Information Technology for Development, 22(sup1), 84–100. doi: 10.1080/02681102.2015.1121856

23. Niebla Zatarain, J. M. (2019). Smart cities and personal data: balancing innovation, technology and the law. Revista Direito, Estado e Sociedade, 54. doi: 10.17808/des.54.1324

24. Nyambura, M. (2015). Influence of adoption of information and communication technology on data management processes in nongovernmental organisations in Nakuru county, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/90409

25. Ogbomo, E. F. (2011). Issues and challenges in the use of information communication technology (icts) in education. Journal of information and knowledge management, 2(1), 1–19.

26. Otieno, A. P. (2015). Factors Influencing Ict Adoption And Usage By Small And Medium Sized Enterprises: The Case Of Nairobi Based Smes (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11732/1365/FACTORS%20INFLUENCING%20ICT%20ADOPTION%20AND%20USAGE%20BY%20SMALL%20AND%20MEDIUM%20SIZED%20ENTERPRISES.pdf?sequence=4

27. Pontell, H. N. (2009). Identity theft: Bounded rationality, research, and policy. Criminology & Public Policy, 8(2), 263–270. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00564.x

28. Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (3th ed.). London: The Free Press.

29. Roy, N. C., & Viswanathan, T. (2019). Disruptive Technologies and its Effect on the Workforce in Banks: A Framework of Assessment for Mitigation. The Empirical Economic Letters, 18.

30. Sahin, I. (2006). Detailed review of Rogers' diffusion of innovations theory and educational technology-related studies based on Rogers' theory. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 5(2), 14–23.

31. Schaffhauser, D. (2017). Biggest barriers to digital learning: lack of time, lack of devices. Retrieved from https://thejournal.com/articles/2017/09/18/biggest-barriers-to-digital-learning.aspx

32. Scholkmann, A. B. (2021). Resistance to (Digital) Change. Digital Transformation of Learning Organizations, 219–236. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-55878-9_13

33. Serah, N. N. (2014). Challenges Facing Effective Information And Communications Technology (Ict) Implementation In Selected Public Secondary Schools In Nakuru North District Nakuru County (Masters thesis). Retrieved from https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/10162/Challenges%20facing%20effective...pdf.pdf;sequence=1

34. Solis, B. (2017, December). The Digital Change Agent’s Manifesto. Retrieved from https://www.peterfisk.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Altimeter-Digital-Change-Agents-Manifesto.pdf

35. Spiekermann, S., Acquisti, A., Böhme, R., & Hui, K.-L. (2015). The challenges of personal data markets and privacy. Electronic Markets, 25(2), 161–167. doi: 10.1007/s12525-015-0191-0

36. Stüber, J. (2018). Barriers of digital technologies in Higher Education. A teachers’ perspective from a Swedish University (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1201871/FULLTEXT01.pdf

37. Surry, D. (1997). Diffusion theory and instructional technology. Retrieved from https://myweb.fsu.edu/ajeong/eme5457/readings/Surry1997_DiffusionTheoryInstrTech.pdf

Wolcott, P., Kamal, M., & Qureshi, S. (2008). Meeting the challenges of ICT adoption by micro‐enterprises. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 21(6), 616–632. doi: 10.1108/17410390810911212


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