Unmarked Methods of Word Formation in Yenisei Inscriptions

. Yenisey's inscriptions are important written sources of Old Turkic. Semantic change, conversion, derivation, and compounding are word-formation methods in the Yenisey inscriptions language. While derivation and compounding are marked methods of word formation where new words are made by adding new affixes or words, semantic change and conversion do not have these explicit means that define them. The last two methods are based on changing meanings or forms of words without adding any new morphemes. Various types of semantic change include metaphor, metonymy, generalization, specialization, amelioration, and pejoration. Among them, metaphor, specialization, amelioration, and pejoration can be seen in Yenisei inscriptions. The words teŋri 'God', qara ' ordinary people' and 'cattle', örüŋ ' silver things' are formed by semantic change. Changing the parts of speech to which the words belong is called conversion. The noun bäŋgü ' memorial, inscription', the adverbs tükäti 'totally', bašlayu 'firstly, to begin with, beginning', üzä 'above' and the functional parts of speech qata 'times' , birlä 'with, together' are formed by conversion. Adjectives with the suffix - sïz can also become adverbs, including buŋusuz 'without a grief, happily'. The research shows that although Turkic languages are agglutinative and possess many derivational suffixes, other word-formation ways do not need adding any new morphemes to words. The products of these methods are relatively few, but they are among the words used frequently.


INTRODUCTION
Yenisei inscriptions are among the oldest written monuments of Turkic languages.Along with Orkhon inscriptions, they are essential to Old Turkic written texts.Although their texts are minimal and consist of only a few lines, the vast number of inscriptions makes them a significant written source for Turkic languages.That's why research on these writings on gravestones helps us to understand the history of Turkic word formation better.
Various ways of word formation have been used in Yenisei inscriptions.These methods include the following: 1) Semantic change; 2) Conversion; 3) Derivation; 4) Compounding.
As can be seen, the word-formation methods mentioned here are based on the changes made to a word existing in the language; that's why phenomena such as borrowing words from other languages and bringing words from dialects into the written language are not included in wordformation.Although these methods develop a language's vocabulary, they do not create new words; they bring existing words into the language.

Word-formation through semantic change
One word-formation method that has extended the vocabulary of the Old Turkic inscriptions is semantic change.
Various types of semantic change occur in language, which are classified and determined using multiple criteria.However, the classification of the kinds of semantic change is controversial: "...various criteria employed frequently overlap.A particular change of meaning can thus be at the same time an instance of specialization and pejoration" [7,289].The most common classifications of semantic change use three criteria, including mechanisms of semantic change, changes in the scope of meaning and changes in the connotations of a word [7,289].According to these criteria, Lujan determines the types of semantic change: 1) mechanisms of semantic change: metaphor and metonymy, folk etymology and ellipsis; 2) changes in the scope of meaning: broadening and narrowing; 3) changes in the connotations of a word: melioration and pejoration [7,[289][290][291][292][293][294][295].
The types of semantic change determined by the latter two criteria are also given as the results of semantic change [3,301].
Types of semantic change include the following: a) Specialization of meaning, by narrowing the existing semantic field of the word, leads to the formation of a new, more specific meaning."Thus, the number of contexts in which the word can be used is reduced, but it conveys more information since it gains specificity."[7,294] It is also known as narrowing, semantic restriction, specialization, or reduction [7,294].b) Generalization of meaning, by extending the existing semantic field of the word, it allows the word to gain new meanings.It "involves that the number of contexts in which a word may be used grows, while the information it conveys gets smaller since it has lost specificity.It is also called broadening or semantic extension" [7,293].c) Metaphor forms a new meaning similar to the former meaning, arising from the former meaning."Metaphor (from Greek metaphorá 'transference') involves conceiving or understanding an object, being or experience in terms of another different one" [7,289].d) Metonymy adds a new meaning which is connected and associated with the former one."Instead, the basis of metonymy (from Greek metōnymia' change of name') lies in contiguity, whether this is physical or not" [7,291].Some authors regard metonymy as a subtype of metaphor [3,285].e) Pejoration forms a new word by changing the good, positive, or neutral meaning of the word into a worse, negative one.It is also called degeneration [7,295].f) Amelioration forms a new word by changing the bad, harmful, or neutral meaning of the word into a better, positive one.It is also known as melioration or elevation [7,295].
In Yenisei inscriptions, new words have been made using several semantics changes.
Teŋri.It is one of the most common words in the Old Turkic inscriptions.The frequency of this word is based on the fact that it is polysemic.
The most known among its meanings are 'sky' and 'God': Teŋridäki künkä, yerdäki elimkä bökmädim (Barlik III 3) 'I could not get enough of the Sun in the sky and my state on Earth.' Kök teŋridä kün ay azïdïm yerimä yïta sizimä adïrïltïm (Elegesh 3) 'I lost the Sun and the Moon in the Blue Sky, I, unfortunately, fell apart from my land.'Bir yetmiš yašïmγa kök teŋridä kün ay azïdïm sizimä (Kejilik-Khobu 5) 'At the age of sixty-one, I lost the Moon and the Sun in the blue sky, unfortunately.' Üzä teŋri yarlïqadï (Uybat III 5) 'The God ordered above.'These meanings have been used since Orkhon's inscriptions.However, unlike Orkhon Inscriptions, this word gained the meaning 'sacred' in Yenisei Inscriptions: Atïm El Toγan tutuq bän teŋri elimkä elčisi ertim, altï baγ budunqa bäg ertim (Uyuk-Tarlak 2) 'My name is El Toghan tutuk.I was the messenger of my sacred state.I was the beg of the people consisting of six tribes.' Teŋri elimkä bökmädim (Uyuk-Turan 2) 'I could not get enough of my sacred state.'So, we can demonstrate the semantic change in this word as 'sky' > 'God' > 'sacred'.The first semantic change here is metonymy; the word depicting the sky began to show the God of the Sky by associating the sky with sacredness.The second semantic change can be considered a metaphor, i.e., the meaning 'God' turned into a similar meaning 'sacred'.Note that in Orkhon and Old Uygur written monuments, the sense 'sacred' was expressed with the words teŋrikän, teŋritäg and teŋridäm and the basic meaning of these words is 'similar to God'.Specialization can also be seen here as the word with a broader meaning of sky became the name of the God of the Sky.
Qara is also one of the words made with semantic change.The word depicting the colour black had gained the meaning majority, commonness, and later this meaning became negative; the phrase qara bodun formed to denote the lower class, the majority of people: Qanïm tülbäri, qara bodun külig qadašïm sizimä el ešim är üküš är oγlan är küdägülärim, kïz kälinlärim bökmädim (Uyuk-Turan 6) '... of my khan (ruler), my people (the lower class of my people, my famous relatives, unfortunately, I could not get enough of my friends in the state, with my many soldiers, with my sons, sons-inlaw, daughters, daughters-in-law.' Qara bodunïm qatïγlanïŋ el törüsi ïdmaŋ yïta siz elim qanïm (Elegesh 7) 'My people (majority of people) become strong, do not leave the state law; unfortunately, my state, my khan.' In this word, metaphor and pejoration can be seen.The neutral meaning of the adjective 'black' gained the shade of negativity.And this change can be initiated by the similarity of the two senses.
Another meaning of qara is 'animal, cattle', which was used together with örüŋ 'shiny', 'silver': Säkiz adaqlïγ barïmïγ üčün yïlqï tükäti bardïm anta bökmädim yïta örüŋümig qaramïγ azïdïm (Begre 3) 'I went with all my horses for my animals with eight legs.Unfortunately, I fell apart from my bright ones and black ones (i.e., from my silver things and cattle).' In Azerbaijani, it is still used as mal-qara 'cattle'.
It was also formed with metaphor, with the similarity of meaning.
Örüŋ 'shiny', 'silver': Säkiz adaqlïγ barïmïγ üčün yïlqï tükäti bardïm anta bökmädim yïta örüŋümig qaramïγ azïdïm (Begre 3) 'I went with all my horses for my animals with eight legs.Unfortunately, I fell apart from my bright ones and black ones (i.e., from my silver things and cattle).' This word can be considered as the result of metaphor and amelioration since it is based on similarity, and it turned from the neutral word meaning 'shiny' into a word with the meaning 'silver', which depicts valuable things.Specialization can also be seen in the last two words as their broader meanings became more specific.

Word-formation through conversion
Conversion of the words, i.e., changing the parts of speech that the words belong to, caused the formation of new words in Yenisei inscriptions.
Conversion is discussed by Henry Sweet in 1891 in his A New English Grammar [9,2], and it is mainly regarded as a characteristic of English: "A peculiarity of the English vocabulary is its rich inventory of verbs which are formed from nouns by conversion or zero-derivation" [2,206].But this does not mean that conversion does not exist in other languages.In old and new Turkic languages, for example, a lot of words had been formed by conversion.
Various terms have been used to name conversion.One of the most common words depicting conversion is zero-derivation: "Authors such as Jespersen (1942), Marchand (1969) and Adams (1973) claim that verbs of this kind are derived from the corresponding nouns using a zeromorph or zero-affix.From this point of view, we are dealing with a particular type of derivation, namely with zero-derivation" [2,207].
The opinions of researchers on conversion vary.While some of them do not accept it as a wordformation process, others assume that conversion makes new words in the lexicon: "WORD CONVERSION can be defined as a characteristic word formation phenomenon which involves a change in the word class, function and meaning of a particular lexical unit without any corresponding change in the form of that word in terms of adding or subtracting any derivational affixes" [4,1].They regard it as a morphological, syntactic, or semantic derivation type or a combination of these types.There are, however, some linguists who do not accept conversion as a method of word formation: "Others deny this, claiming that what takes place during conversion is not word-formation, but the usage-based reduplication or relisting of certain words belonging to a word class as words belonging to another word class, or the manifestation of the inherent in-or under determinacy of word categories" [10,[451][452].
Conversion has several types, one of which is called complete conversion: "Complete conver-sion means that the word is completely adapted to a new class and obtains all the characteristics of that class (including inflexion)" [4,2].If we regard conversion as a word-formation process, only complete conversion can be accepted since it is the only way of making new words by changing the parts of speech the words belong to.
Conversion is also characterized as the following: "It can thus be seen as a type of categorial shift whereby the semantic change which has taken place in the input is not formally reflected in the output" [5,32].Along with semantic change, conversion is a non-linear or an unmarked method of word formation where "the addition of semantic content is not accompanied by the addition of some form" [10,452].
Conversion is "a process of semantic derivation motivated by conceptual shifts" [9,6].Researchers claim that conversion must also involve semantic change and that if it does not include semantic change, then it can be accepted as transposition: "In fact, mere word-class change, usually termed transposition, is sometimes described explicitly as the occurrence of the same meaning" [13,8].
According to the general view on conversion, products of this process are regarded as grammatical homonyms.However, the author disagrees with it, stating that, unlike homonyms, conversational pairs are semantically related, which is why she considers them polysemic words [10,456].Nevertheless, not all instances of homonymy should be semantically unrelated.They can be related to some degree, only not to prevent them from being independent words.All the products of word formation, whether a derivative or a compound word or words formed with semantic change or conversion, are semantically related to their source.Without this relation, there would not be word-formation processes.And if we accept them as new words, we must accept conversational pairs as homonyms since they are not the same lexical units.Note that the meanings of polysemic words do not form new lexical units.They are just the meanings of the same word.On the other hand, the main difference in the members of conversational pairs is not their semantic meaning but their grammatical features and syntactic functions.Whereas in Orkhon Inscriptions, the phrase bäŋgü taš was used: ...anča erig yertä bäŋgü taš toqïtdïm, bitidim (Kul Tigin South 13) '...I have built a monument in that place to be, I wrote.'Bäŋgü meant 'eternal' there: Ötükän yïš olursar, bäŋgü il tuta olurtačï sän, türk bodun, toq (Bilge Kaghan North 6) 'If you sit in the Otuken Forest, you will stay ruling the state forever, Turkic people.' Tükäti 'totally' was formed as the result of the petrification of the converb of tükät-'to finish' and its adverbialization: Säkiz adaqlïγ barïmïγ üčün yïlqï tükäti bardïm anta bökmädim yïta örüŋümig qaramïγ azïdïm (Begre 3) 'I went with all my horses for my animals with eight legs.Unfortunately, I fell apart from my bright ones and black ones (i.e., from my silver things and cattle).' Bašlayu' firstly' formed as the result of the fixation of the converb of the verb bašla-as an adverb: Otuz ärig bašlayu tutuγqa badï ärinč (III Uybat 12) 'Firstly, he must have taken captive thirty soldiers.' The adverb üzä 'above' may come from the word üz 'higher part': Üzä teŋri yarlïqadï (III Uybat 5) 'The God ordered above.' The adverbializations of the adjectives with the suffix -sïz is very common in Old Turkic, especially in Orkhon Inscriptions: ...qarluq bodun buŋsïz erür barur erikli yaγï boltï (Bilge Kaghan East 28-29) '...the Karluk people became enemy when they were leaving without any sorrow.'Edgü özläk atïn, qara kisin, kök tiyinin sansïz kälürip qop qotï (Bilge Kaghan South 12) 'They bring their good breed horses, black sables, blue squirells uncountably and put them all.' ...önüg yoγaru sü yorïp tünlü-künlü yiti ödüškä subsïz kečdim (Bilge Kaghan Southeast) '...sending my troops up ahead, I crossed it for seven days and nights without water.'Whereas in Yenisei Inscriptions, it has been registered only in a few examples: Buŋusuz ulγatïm buŋ bu ermiš (Barlik III 2) 'I was raised without sorrows, it was the sorrow.'It means that the second part of this phrase became unwanted in the Old Turkic Inscriptions, and the first word denoted the whole word.

CONCLUSIONS
To summarise the information above, it can be said that although Turkic languages possess many derivative suffixes, unmarked wordformation methods are also used here.These methods, such as semantic change and conversion, have been used in Turkic languages from the oldest written monuments.Several examples exist in Yenisei Inscriptions, essential to learning the history of word formation in Turkic languages.The types of semantic change, such as metaphor, specialization, pejoration, and amelioration, can be seen in the Inscriptions.Conversion formed nouns, adverbs, and functional parts of speech here.